What Developmental Biological Changes Lead To Improvement In Inhibitory Control And Working Memory ?

Open admission peer-reviewed chapter

A View from the Start: A Review of Inhibitory Control Preparation in Early on Childhood

Submitted: April 8th, 2019 Reviewed: July 19th, 2019 Published: October 24th, 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.88700

Abstract

Immature children'south capacity to monitor and command their thoughts and behaviors is influenced largely by inhibitory control, which grows rapidly during this age due to brain maturation. This capacity has of import implications for children's development, including academic and social outcomes, and has been shown to be influenced past culture and exposure to adverse life events such as poverty. Research suggests that this capacity, importantly, may be largely trainable, with advisable preparation programs.

Keywords

early childhood
executive function
cross-cultural
low-income

Erin Ruth Baker*
- University at Albany, Country University of New York, Albany, NY, United States
Qingyang Liu
- University at Albany, State Academy of New York, Albany, NY, U.s.
Rong Huang
- Academy at Albany, Country University of New York, Albany, NY, United States

*Address all correspondence to: erbaker@albany.edu

1. Introduction

During the childhood years and into adolescence, the brain grows tremendously, causing a significant change in cognitive capacities. In later years of babyhood and boyhood, many of the neurological changes correspond with advancements in perspective taking and reasoning; notwithstanding, evidence from the early childhood years suggests that these changes more closely align with advancements in inhibitory control and executive functions more broadly [ane, 2]. However, at that place are singled-out developmental changes which inform our understanding of inhibitory control and which merit further discussion. Regardless, these developmental changes have profound impacts on children's development overall, including bookish and social outcomes. It is important to recognize, however, that children's capacities to inhibit a prepotent response have been shown to vary by culture, also as exposure to early adverse life events, and therefore a consideration of environment should be included when attempting to conduct research in this area or when making of import policy or curriculum decisions. Nevertheless, inquiry which utilizes inhibitory control (IC) training specifically within the early childhood ages demonstrates positive results, with more intensive training yielding more than promising results.

2. Nature of inhibitory control during the early childhood years

Research has consistently demonstrated that the preschool years are a developmental time during which children experience profound growth in their power to inhibit an unwanted response [iii]. Younger preschool-age children are more than likely to perseverate in their errors across multiple trials [iv] by repeating a maladaptive beliefs—for instance, a child who continues to shout out in class instead of raising their hand—whereas this pattern declines markedly by historic period 4. Similarly, iii-twelvemonth-old children demonstrate an ability to inhibit an automatic prepotent response on a Simon Says task (due east.one thousand., Go/NoGo task [5]: children are trained to respond to one stimulus and are trained not to answer to a similar stimulus; see Table one) for roughly one in four trials, in comparing to 4-year-old children who were successful on roughly 9 out of 10 trials [6]. Moreover, the impacts of inhibitory control on children's cognitive capacities also seem to change every bit a office of age. For case, younger preschool-historic period children's inhibitory control capacities strongly predict their problem-solving strategy use and performance; however, older preschool-age children's problem solving is ameliorate explained by their working memory capacities (come across Table 1) rather than their inhibitory control abilities [7]. Relatedly, the development patterns of IC growth may not exist express to simply greater accuracy on relatively straightforward tasks. Older preschool-age children perform with greater success on more complicated tasks of IC than their younger peers [1], which may indicate that using multiple, progressive tasks when assessing IC may reveal of import developmental patterns not captured by using a single task or by using multiple similar tasks. Overall, the findings on early childhood IC show robust and dramatic growth, particularly during the childhood years.

Key terms	Definitions
Executive functions (EF)	The constellation of foundation cognitive capacities, such equally inhibitory control, working memory, and attention, which allow for later emergence of reasoning and problem solving
Inhibitory control (IC)	The cognitive capacity to inhibit a prepotent, automated behavioral response
Working memory	A cognitive arrangement for temporarily storing and managing data that is necessary for undertaking circuitous cognitive tasks
Theory of mind (ToM)	The understanding that others accept mental states such as beliefs, desires, etc., which can vary from person to person or within one person over time
Become/NoGo task	Children are trained to respond to one stimulus (e.thousand., "Go" stimuli) and are trained not to reply to a similar stimulus ("NoGo" stimuli). This task measures behavioral inhibition
Twenty-four hour period/Night Stroop task	Children are trained and must complete trials in which they say the word "dark" when presented with an prototype of a sunday on a white background and say "24-hour interval" when presented with an image of a moon on a night background. This task involves both behavioral inhibition and cerebral interference
Cognitive interference/interference command	It refers to attempts to suppress interference from competing stimuli. The response fourth dimension of an IC task is normally considered as a measure of cerebral interference
Behavioral inhibition	It requires suppressing a behavioral response for a more than optimal response. Cognitive interference and behavioral inhibition are ii aspects of IC
Electroencephalogram (EEG)	A neurological testing that allows researchers to precisely mensurate brain activeness during the behavioral tasks, which provides for a more complete exam and consideration of IC every bit a cognitive capacity
Inhibitory control training	A designed intervention that includes a preparation process which aimed at improving IC

Table 1.

A summary of definitions of the major concepts and techniques.

Although researchers hold on the tremendous growth of IC during this developmental age, there persists disagreement as to the specific nature of IC, and executive functions, during this time. Executive functions (EF) refer to the constellation of foundational cognitive capacities, such as inhibitory control, working memory, and attention [1], which allow for later on emergence of reasoning and problem solving. In heart babyhood and across, these executive function capacities can be considered every bit increasingly discrete processing mechanisms; however, during early childhood, these patterns remain more nebulous, and studies using confirmatory factor analysis have shown developmental differences in cistron emergence and persistent factor unification into the babyhood years. For instance, during the preschool years (broadly, ages 3 years to six years), studies using multiple assessments of inhibitory command, attention, and working retentivity yield a single unitary construct of executive office or inhibition generally [8, 9, 10, 11, 12], whereas studies of middle childhood have discerned multiple discrete factors, including working memory and attention shifting [thirteen], and this trend continues and expands into later babyhood and adolescence (encounter [14]).

The prevailing argument is that tasks of IC during the early childhood years necessitate activation of multiple other components of EF. take, for case, the Day/Nighttime Stroop task (see [15]; Table one) in which a child is trained and must complete trials in which they say the give-and-take "night" when presented with an paradigm of a sun on a white groundwork and say "day" when presented with an paradigm of a moon on a dark groundwork. In this chore, IC is typically measured by accuracy, with measurements of response time often included as well. This task clearly requires the child to inhibit the automatic response of verbalizing the association they have made betwixt the lord's day and it being daytime, or between the moon being present during dark, and thus is inarguably a chore of IC. However, some argue that this chore measures additional facets of EF simply by the nature of the job. For instance, a kid must have sustained attending throughout the cess, and if the child loses focus for even a moment, the measurement of response time could be conflated, leading some scholars to argue that the attentional component of EF predicts IC [iii, sixteen]. Similarly, the child must piece of work to keep the rules of the moon/solar day and sun/night matching in the forefront of their mind during the cess, and if they do not, and then the accuracy mensurate could be conflated with working retentivity. Many researchers accept argued, therefore, that the various EF components are highly integrated during the early babyhood years and that these components sally as more than distinct with historic period and experience [1, 14].

Every bit shown past the previous example, it is difficult for researchers to disentangle the various components of EF, from a measurement perspective, in early childhood. Researchers' understanding and measurement of inhibitory control during the early childhood years should therefore be sensitive to the developmental nature of such phenomena and should perhaps consider using indices of a multifariousness of executive function capacities. However, equally described previously [14], a common conceptualization of EF in the early on babyhood literature seems to imply that EF and IC are analogous at this development time (e.g., [17]) or that IC developmentally precedes other domains of EF (e.m., [16]). Although IC contributes largely to early childhood EF, as demonstrated in the previous example, it may be problematic to consider these every bit synonymous. One argument in support of this claim is that children'southward task performance on EF tasks well-nigh closely replicates problems of IC—that is, a child will persist in making prepotent errors, a classic demonstration of immature IC, while also activating other areas of EF, such every bit attention, working memory, etc. Although several arguments take been proposed to counter the position of equivocating EF with IC, nigh pertinent to the current chapter may be that IC itself may be multidimensional. Referring again to the same example, many researchers consider response fourth dimension in the Mean solar day-Night Stroop task to be a measure out of cognitive interference (sometimes referred to as interference control), which refers to attempts to suppress interference from competing stimuli, in contrast to behavioral inhibition which requires suppressing a behavioral response for a more than optimal response [18, 19]. That is, the construct of inhibitory control as it pertains to developmental changes during the early on childhood years requires both the cognitive power to limit attention to distractor stimuli and the behavioral power to engage an appropriate response.

Turning to developing an appreciation for the office of IC for holistic development, the capacity for IC has important implications in terms of development across a number of domains [20]. For case, although IC has been shown to predict children's academic achievement generally throughout the childhood years [21], strong IC consistently predicts more proficient mathematical knowledge [sixteen, 22, 23, 24] and numerical strategy utilise [25]. Moreover, IC has been implicated in children's emergent literacy proficiency [16, 24] and language development [26]. The development of IC during the early on childhood years additionally has profound implications for children's social and emotional evolution [27], such as the emergence and development of social perspective taking [28], problem solving and emotional command [27], and suppressing confusing behaviors and assailment [11]. As such, IC should exist considered by researchers and practitioners alike for the implications this chapters may hold across areas of maladaptive academic and social evolution.

Enquiry methodologies employed for assessing IC during the early childhood years can vary considerably, and each assessment offers a wealth of strengths yet, every bit mentioned previously, may be incomplete on its own. Therefore, much of the inquiry studies in this expanse apply more than i type of cess or multiple assessments with considerable methodological overlap. An important consideration in measurement of IC, indeed of any cognitive faculty, during the early on childhood years is the developmental appropriateness of the task (see [eight], for review). For instance, children in this age range are often meantime experiencing emerging literacy skills and are often not yet proficient readers; therefore, it would be inappropriate to use a chore which requires even low reading requirements, as such a job would likely require a cognitive load too great to allow for successful task completion. Moreover, such a chore when used with an emerging reader would issue in contaminated measurement in that task performance may indicate a lack of understanding the rules of the task, the lack of proficiency in reading, or inhibitory command. Similarly, tasks to exist used on a written report of early childhood should exist rather straightforward, without overly complicated instructions or numerous steps. Therefore, much of the research studies in the surface area of inhibitory command that focus on early on child development use tasks or games which require no reading, with unproblematic instructions provided to the child verbally and repeated if necessary, and these tasks typically include a generous grooming fourth dimension to ensure that the child understands and can perform the task.

Many of the commonly employed tasks resemble that of the Mean solar day/Night Stroop task [15, 29] and the Go/NoGo chore [ane, 5, 19, 30], both of which were described in the previous paragraphs. Importantly, these ii tasks differ in terms of cerebral interference with regard to the expectations for children'due south behavioral responses. Specifically, the Day/Night Stroop task involves embedded rule utilise, thus requires children to produce a verbal response to multiple stimuli, and therefore requires that the children process and act on multiple rules (i.e., if moon, then "day," but if sunday, then "dark"), whereas the Become/NoGo task only requires a behavioral response to a single stimulus (e.g., if "Simon Says," then response; if not, then no response). This distinction has led some to argue that the Day/Night Stroop task may be more complex particularly for younger children than other tasks, and therefore operation on this and similar tasks may exist indicative of greater IC capacities compared with Get/NoGo tasks (come across, e.g., [31, 32]).

Consistent with the recommendation noted previously regarding the need to use multiple indices of IC when attempting to correctly assess children's capacities, many researchers utilise the use of neurological testing, such as an electroencephalogram (EEG), in concert with a behavioral task, such as the Get/NoGo task (e.g., [30]). Using neurological measurement, such equally EEG, allows researchers to precisely measure out brain activity during the behavioral tasks, which provides for a more complete examination and consideration of IC every bit a cerebral capacity particularly from a developmental perspective. That is, every bit the encephalon is experiencing tremendous growth during the early childhood years, information technology is important to capture how such physical growth corresponds with cognitive growth, and this is perhaps best washed past measuring neural activeness during a cognitive chore.

Overall, EF more often than not, and inhibitory control specifically, undergoes dramatic growth during the preschool years, which has important implications for their development overall [1, 2]. Although EF is discernable as more discrete constructs in later ages of development, this has non been consistently demonstrated during the early childhood years [8, 9, 10, 11, 12], and thus researchers should consider mayhap utilizing multiple tasks, including neurological assessments if possible [thirty], to provide a more comprehensive understanding of IC during the early childhood years.

2.1 Impacts of culture and environment on young children's inhibitory control development

Consistent with other cantankerous-cultural research which shows variation in the timing and emergence of children's cerebral capacities (e.yard., [33]), evidence of IC development from non-Western societies is not entirely consequent with that of Western societies, suggesting that children'due south inhibitory control may exist impacted by cultural and environmental factors [34]. For instance, a multifariousness of studies comparison Chinese samples to Western samples may suggest that preschool-historic period children reared in Chinese cultures outperform their US counterparts on tasks of IC [34, 35], which has as well been institute in other non-Western cultures (e.g., Nihon [36]). Chiefly, comparing samples of non-Western cultures from African and Latin American communities [37] as well as cultures which share both Western and Eastern ideals (i.e., Turkey [38]) to Western has not yielded differences by civilization. Overall, the cross-cultural research on IC evolution in early childhood may bespeak that although there is a big universality in terms of IC development, cultural and societal mores may crusade differences in children's IC and development more broadly.

Moreover, in terms of implications of the cross-cultural enquiry for child evolution more broadly, in Western cultures IC has been consistently shown to predict theory of mind (i.e., the understanding that others accept mental states such as beliefs, desires, etc., which can vary from person to person or within one person over time [39]) specially during the early childhood years [31], which holds implications for children's social competence during early babyhood and beyond; however, this predictive relation between IC and theory of listen has not consistently been demonstrated in cross-cultural samples to the aforementioned degree as in Western samples [40]. For instance, a recent meta-assay discussed that although IC and EF generally did predict theory of mind and mental state understanding beyond cultures, the force of this prediction was weaker among studies assessing East Asian samples than several Western samples, including the USA, Canada, and Europe [31].

Other environmental factors, such as exposure to poverty or depression socioeconomic opportunity, have also been shown to impact children'south cognitive development, including the development of EF during the early childhood years, with children from low-income families generally underperforming their more than affluent peers [41, 42]; however, the contempo work has turned to focus on the adaptive strengths of children raised in environments with higher rates of adversity [43]. For example, although children from low-income families have demonstrated less accuracy on a Get/NoGo chore, they did not perform more slowly on the task [44]. Moreover, children from depression-income families performed less accurately on a simple working retention task than with peers, but these group differences were eliminated when the job was fabricated to be more circuitous [44]. A similar finding has been shown for children who take experienced familial trauma, and this may be truthful fifty-fifty when because the impacts of poverty exposure. Children who have been reported as experiencing family trauma, every bit assessed by indices of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), showed poorer global EF than non-traumatized children [45]; however, the result size was weaker for IC task operation than other types of EF, such as working memory and processing speed. This may suggest that children who feel familial trauma may develop adaptive responses to their environments which permit them to inhibit prepotent responses as indicated by the IC task performance.

Similar to the pattern of IC mediating the bear upon of culture on early babyhood competence, it may be that environmental exposure to poverty and adversity may additionally impact other areas of children'south development. Academic achievement and behavioral regulatory faculties are more strongly predicted by IC job operation for children from more flush family backgrounds, for example, than their less affluent peers [46]. Additionally, among children attending a federally funded educational plan for low-income families and their children, children with stronger IC functioning were rated past their teachers as having better socio-emotional faculties and showed fewer internalizing behaviors (eastward.thou., indications of anxiety and depression) than their low-income peers who performed less well on IC tasks [47, 48]. Children who feel other types of environmental adversity, such as children who experience violence or maltreatment at home, bear witness similar patterns of poorer academic accomplishment and school aligning, yet this relation is additionally explained by children's IC [49]. In sum, although children who experience agin early life events, or are raised in low-income families and neighborhoods, have shown to differ from more traditional samples in terms of bookish accomplishment and socio-emotional competencies, these discrepancies may be explained by young children's emerging IC faculties. Therefore, these children may evidence marked improvements in EF capacities, equally well as other positive outcomes such as improved academic achievement, with IC grooming.

2.2 Inhibitory control training in early childhood and implications for development

Efforts in establishing inhibitory control as an effective tool for cognitive improvements have proven successful across the life span [50]. Moreover, equally the early childhood years are an important time for the evolution of EF generally, and IC specifically, as previously discussed, this developmental age range is ideal for examining the possible power of IC training. Several studies have examined the impacts of IC training on kid outcomes, and these studies consistently yield positive findings [xix, 21, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56].

Importantly, the outcomes of IC training have been shown to vary considerably based on the types of training. Studies accept shown, for example, the grooming of more global EF capacities rather than IC specifically (due east.g., [53, 55]) may be successful in expanding cognitive operation beyond a wide range of tasks. This aligns with the aforementioned discussion of the entanglement of multiple components of EF during early babyhood (i.eastward., that many gene analytic studies take shown that in the early babyhood years the distinct components of EF, such as working retentiveness and IC, may not be as separately discernable equally evidenced during the later years of development [eight, 9, 10, 11, 12]). To test this, some researchers accept attempted to gauge the effectiveness of IC training compared with grooming in other areas of EF, such every bit working retentiveness; for instance, children who received five weeks of computerized IC training, compared with a group who received a parallel program of working retentivity training, showed improvements in task performance for the task on which they received training; nevertheless these improvements did non transfer to other tasks of EF [55]. Limited transfer effects have been reported elsewhere besides, such every bit children showing increased performance on methodologically and structurally like tasks as to the training job, merely not other tasks [51], although this increase in performance was sustained over many months. Nevertheless, other research has shown considerable transfer furnishings, such every bit children showing enhanced reasoning abilities afterward grooming on a Go/NoGo task [xix] and children, adolescents, and adults showing enhanced perspective-taking capacities after receiving IC training [50].

Other types of preparation have also shown to be successful in improving EF performance. Having children appoint in reflective metacognition regarding their functioning on difficult cognitive tasks, such every bit their performance in the Day/Night Stroop task, has shown to be constructive in enhancing their functioning on that task even compared with more traditional grooming procedures, such equally practice and cosmetic feedback [54]. Additionally, training on language skills can have a positive impact on children's IC, as such trainings crave engaging in multiple components of EF (e.grand., sustained attention), every bit well as IC specifically [57] such as by requiring the child to use the right term for a specific detail within a larger category of items. This aligns with the espoused conceptualization of early childhood IC equally greatly entangled within EF and is consequent with other research on EF trainings more broadly. For example, children who received 12 sessions over 4 weeks of grooming that included working memory, IC, and cerebral flexibility showed significant improvements beyond a range of EF capacities, and these effects transferred to other areas of children's cognition as well [58].

Additionally, outcomes of IC training may yield important changes at the level of neuronal and brain activity [54], which may non necessarily stand for with firsthand changes in behavior. For instance, studies have shown that children who received an 8-calendar week program of preparation which targeted children's IC, working memory, and planning ability found that, for children who received the preparation, neural action levels changed in the corresponding encephalon regions as expected; however children'southward task performance after the training did not differ significantly from their pre-grooming operation [xxx]. Other studies have plant that a single preparation session of metacognitive reflection virtually decision-making impulsive behaviors may atomic number 82 to decreased activation of the encephalon region responsible for processing alien information, which may indicate a lessened likelihood to procedure the information equally conflicting, and therefore possibly indicating better adaptation in integrating new rule schemes [54].

Moreover, the positive impacts of receiving EF training have been found effective for children from low-income families likewise. For instance, one written report showed that when classrooms serving low-income families implemented a full yr of an EF training that included a broad range of EF skills deeply integrated into the classroom curriculum, compared with classrooms that had no such program, children who received the preparation outperformed children in the control group on both simple and avant-garde tasks [52]. Indeed, children in the command group showed a decline in chore performance for the more advanced tasks, which was not constitute for children who received the training. What's more than, the program was and then successful that the control condition was non allowed to repeat, past request of the school, as the teachers and parents noted such profound modify in terms of academics and student behavior that the school refused to continue the project without total implementation of the programme in all classrooms. In concert with findings from more than traditional samples which included less intensive training, these outcomes would point that children from low-income families might be an specially important area for future enquiry, given the overwhelming strength of the results.

Although studies using IC training with children of incarcerated parents, or children who have experienced abuse or fail, were not revealed during the current literature search, the previously discussed inquiry of IC training during early childhood could be extended to these populations [45]. For instance, research on handling approaches for anxiety and depression (common outcomes of trauma) with adults has shown that training individuals to develop better cocky-regulatory executive processes, such every bit attention, have shown promising results (run into [45] for word). Given that children's EF faculties are more than nebulous and entangled than adults, it stands to reason that such approaches would yield additionally promising results during the early on childhood years.

Moreover, such intervention approaches might be promising for researchers working in clinical settings. For instance, mindfulness training approaches that capitalize on EF processes, such equally attentional focus, for children with anxiety have proven constructive in reducing anxiety symptomology [59]. Such training has proven effective for children from low-income families as well [lx], with positive effects extending across advanced EF evolution to include positive socio-emotional and behavioral changes besides. However, much of the research in this area has been conducted with older children, and examinations of the promise of mindfulness preparation during the early childhood years may not nonetheless exist. This may be an important area for future research, equally the implications for positive outcomes may be more robust with earlier intervention.

Overall, findings with regard to improving child outcomes during the early babyhood years equally they relate to IC training suggest that IC training may exist effective to varying degrees. Although a few studies showed limited transfer effects, the nigh promising findings come from studies which implemented a broader EF training program rather than those which utilized specific IC training. Additionally, research studies with longer preparation programs, such as the i-year program discussed above, yield stronger furnishings in terms of global kid outcomes than did shorter programs. Studies involving encephalon imaging have as well shown positive outcomes in terms of changes in brain activity, indicating that such grooming may be important for effecting long-term modify.

3. Conclusions

The cerebral capacity to inhibit a prepotent, automatic response grows tremendously during the early babyhood years corresponding with and every bit a function of profound brain development taking identify at this time [i, 2]. At later ages, this cognitive ability is rather distinct from other foundational cognitive capacities, such equally attention and working memory; however, considerable enquiry suggests that during early on childhood these distinctions are less clear, leading many researchers to consider and research EF equally a more than global office at this age [eight, 9, ten, 11, 12, 13, 14].

Research which focuses on IC during the early childhood years typically utilizes elementary, game-like tasks which crave brief or no verbal response, and researchers typically utilize a variety of tasks which may appraise diverse areas of EF, including the Solar day/Dark Stroop chore [15, 29] and the Go/NoGo task [1, v, 19, thirty]. Importantly, and with regard for the of import growth occurring at this age in specific encephalon regions, many researchers use these tasks in combination with brain imaging [30], providing important insights into developmental changes taking place in brain and neuronal activity.

Importantly, the current affiliate includes much literature on EF broadly rather than focusing specifically on IC and IC training. Although this is consistent with the current conceptualization of IC during this developmental time within the literature, this may have resulted in certain findings and trainings existence included in the current give-and-take with which some researchers may disagree. Additionally, the current chapter focuses narrowly on a specific developmental window and thus is not representative of the inquiry on IC beyond babyhood.

For transparency, the literature review for the current chapter used the following databases: Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science. The keywords were executive role, inhibitory control (training), working memory, sustained attention, cognitive development, self-regulation, preschoolers, early childhood, children, cross-cultural, and hazard population. Specifically, inhibitory command is a broad term in the research procedure, which has been expanded and is non limited to the executive part and cerebral development [61]. For ease of agreement, an at-risk population was defined as any potential risk factors (i.due east., poverty or low income, neighborhood violence, family unit violence, family unit maltreatment, depression social status, depression education groundwork, rural area). However, and as is the case with many reviews, the current chapter does non include findings from unpublished works, and thus the positive support for IC grooming as discussed hither may be an artifact of publication bias.

Nevertheless, in creating IC training programs, much of the enquiry has shown positive outcomes beyond a diverseness of preparation programs; however, every bit is to be expected, more promising and profound results back-trail programs with more intensive grooming with longer durations [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Such training programs have proven effective across cultures and changes in the environment [52], including children from low-income backgrounds and children who take experienced profound early adverse life events. Although little enquiry to date has examined IC training during early on childhood in clinical samples, extending from the work discussed in this chapter, it would follow that IC training broadly, and mayhap mindfulness grooming specifically, may yield positive outcomes across domains.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare at that place is no conflict of interest.

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Written Past

Erin Ruth Baker, Qingyang Liu and Rong Huang

Submitted: April 8th, 2019 Reviewed: July 19th, 2019 Published: October 24th, 2019

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.